Research themes

This area of work (led by Professor Helen Sauntson and visiting fellow Dr Liz Morrish) has systematically analysed the discourse of higher education: the move to marketisation and competition; the financialisation of research; the way discourse shapes and reproduces new kinds of academic values and identities.

The research focuses on furthering our understanding of how language operates in university contexts often in problematic ways which can alienate both students and academic staff, and position them in ways which do not align with their own beliefs and values. The book 'Academic Irregularities: Language and Neoliberalism in Higher Education' (Routledge, 2020), was awarded the runner-up prize in the 2021 BAAL Book prize. In this book, and in a number of related book chapters and journal articles, the research has involved a critical examination of the discourses at play in the higher education system and the ways in which these discourses underpin the transmission of neoliberal values in 21st century universities.

Situated within a Critical Discourse Analysis-based framework, this area of work also draws upon other linguistic approaches, including corpus linguistics and appraisal analysis, to unpack the construction and development of the management style known as managerialism, and how it operates through the language practices routinely used and encountered in universities.

"This volume presents studies into the highly relevant and timely topic of current higher education discourse in the UK and other anglophone countries. The results are eye-opening especially with regard to how academia has changed over the years, including the roles of academics. This book is important beyond applied linguistics; in fact, it is of relevance for the entire HE sector, especially in the UK. Apart from its clear academic merit, it is also of potential political value, offering arguments against the marketisation of universities, the audit culture of HE management and viewing students merely as 'customers'."

British Association of Applied Liguistrics (BAAL) review

Selected works

Morrish, L. and Sauntson, H. (2020) Academic Irregularities: Language and Neoliberalism in Higher Education. London: Routledge.

Morrish, L. and Sauntson, H. (2016) Performance management and the stifling of academic freedom and knowledge production. Journal of Historical Sociology 29 (1): 42-64. doi.org/10.1111/johs.12122

Morrish, L. and Sauntson, H. (2013) 'Business-facing motors for economic development': An Appraisal analysis of visions and values in the marketized UK university. Critical Discourse Studies 10 (1): 61-80. doi.org/10.1080/17405904.2012.736698

The Centre's work in this area (led by Professor Helen Sauntson) focuses on exploring the role that language plays in constructing diverse gender and sexual identities in educational contexts.

The monograph 'Language, Sexuality and Education' (Sauntson, Cambridge University Press, 2018), along with a number of other edited books, book chapters and journal articles related to the same body of research, presents a range of language-focused data obtained from secondary schools. This body of work presents multiple analyses of the often complex ways in which homophobia, heterosexism and heteronormativity are enacted within school contexts. Work in this area examines the language used in Relationships and Sex Education guidance, classroom-based interaction, and the language used by teachers and young people in relation to a range of gender and sexuality identities.

The overriding aim of this area of research is to show that, by analysing language, we can discover much about how educators and students experience gender and sexual diversity in their schools, and about how gender and sexual identities are constructed through language.

"An outstanding piece of scholarship. Her meticulous, queer linguistically informed analyses of communicative practices in educational contexts reveal graphically that sexuality-related discrimination and invisibility still form harmful discourses that systematically affect learners and learning in negative ways. A seminal text for queer applied linguistics and an important addition to the field of language and sexuality studies."

Review of 'Language, Sexuality and Education' - Heiko Motschenbacher (Western Norway University of Applied Sciences, Bergen)

Selected works

Sauntson, H. (2021) Queering TESOL in international learning contexts. In L. Pakula (ed) Linguistic Perspectives on Sexuality in Education: Representations, Constructions and Negotiations. Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Sauntson, H. and Borba, R. (2021) Silence and sexuality in school settings: A transnational perspective. In J. Stern, M. Walejko, C. Sink and W. Ping Ho (eds) The Bloomsbury Handbook of Solitude, Silence and Loneliness. London: Bloomsbury.

Sauntson, H. (2020) Language-based discrimination in schools: Intersections of gender and sexuality. In C.R. Caldas-Coulthard (ed) Innovations and Challenges in Language and Gender: Women and Sexism. London: Routledge.

Sauntson, H. (2020) Changing educational policies: Language and sexuality in schools. In L. Mullany (ed) Professional Communication: Consultancy, Advocacy, Activism. Basingstoke: Palgrave.

Kjaran, J.I. and Sauntson, H. (eds) (2019) Schools as Queer Transformative Spaces: Global Narratives on Sexualities and Genders. London: Routledge.

Sauntson, H. (2018) Language, Sexuality and Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Sauntson, H. (2018) Language, sexuality and inclusive pedagogy. Special issue on 'Linguistic dimensions of inclusion in foreign language education'. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 29 (3): 322-340. doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12239

Sauntson, H. (2016) Authenticating sexual diversity in the school curriculum: Examining sociolinguistic constructions of young people’s sexual identities. Journal of Language, Identity and Education 15 (1): 17-31. doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2016.1113812

Sundaram, V. and Sauntson, H. (eds) (2015) Global Perspectives and Key Debates in Sex and Relationships Education: Addressing Issues of Gender, Sexuality, Plurality and Power. Basingstoke: Palgrave.

This area of work (led by Associate Professor Dai O'Brien) investigates the ways in which deaf individuals navigate predominantly hearing spaces, with research focused on experiences, challenges and adaptations within mainstream society. Dr O'Brien’s research spans multiple aspects of deaf life, including the transition of deaf youth from childhood to early adulthood in mainstream settings, where they often face barriers to information and support during this critical phase. His work also examines the impact on a deaf community following the closure of a local deaf centre, a vital "deaf space" that had previously fostered community connections.

Another key area of Dr O'Brien's research is the experience of deaf academics within higher education, particularly how institutional spaces and structures can either support or hinder their inclusion. Recently, he has explored the dynamics of 'trust' in the relationship between deaf individuals and sign language interpreters. Dr O'Brien’s current project delves into deaf participation in radical politics, focusing on the life of LA Motler, a deaf anarchist-communist active in the early 20th century. Across these studies, Dr O'Brien employs creative and participatory methods to emphasise both the resilience and unique experiences of deaf individuals as they navigate 'hearing' spaces.

Selected works

Skyer, M., Scott, J.A. and O'Brien, D. (2023) <O/ No power but Deaf power \O>: Revitalizing Deaf education systems via anarchism. Social Inclusion 11(2): 159-172. cogitatiopress.com/socialinclusion/article/view/6534

O'Brien, D., Hodge, G., Gulamani, S., Rowley, K., Adam, R., Emery, S. and Walker, J. (2023) Deaf academics' perceptions of 'trust' in relationships with signed language interpreters. Translation and Interpreting (15) 2. doi.org/10.12807/ti.115202.2023.a02

Chua, M., De Meulder, M., Geer, L., Henner, J., Hou, L., Kubus, O., O'Brien, D. and Robinson, O. (2022) 1001 small victories: Deaf academics and imposter syndrome. In M. Addison, M. Breeze and Y. Taylor (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Imposter Syndrome in Higher Education. London: Springer. doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86570-2_29

The Centre’s work in this area (led by Associate Professor Clare Cunningham) engages with language's role in promoting ecological justice, drawing on interdisciplinary collaborations to address ecological issues through a linguistic lens. As part of the Ecological Justice Research Group at York St John University, Dr Cunningham contributes to diverse research and pedagogical projects, including the cross-university Living Lab initiative. This project has sparked student dissertations in Languages and Linguistics, with recent work in 2022-2023 examining food-related discourses.

Dr Cunningham has collaborated with colleagues in geography and theatre to explore student discourses on personal agency related to ecological justice. Together with undergraduate student Charlotte Foxcroft and Professor Helen Sauntson, Dr Cunningham investigated political and activist discourses on the climate emergency, resulting in a publication in Language and Ecology that has garnered attention from The Conversation and the podcast Lexis. Further research with Professor Sauntson includes analyses of children's eco-narratives, with a forthcoming chapter on social actor analysis in 2025 and an additional chapter using Appraisal Analysis for Apocalyptic Ecolinguistics (Bloomsbury).

Selected works

Cunningham, C. Parks, J., Heinemeyer, C., Bailey, J. and Castaneda Martin, A. (2023) 'Doing your little bit' when 'everything is just so big now': Locating domains for developing agency amidst disagentic student discourses about our climate crisis. The SoJo Journal: Educational Foundations and Social Justice Education 8 (1).

Cunningham, C., Foxcroft, C. and Sauntson, H. (2022) The divergent discourses of activists and politicians in the climate change debate: An ecolinguistic corpus analysis. Language and Ecology. Download article as PDF (PDF, 452.36 kB).

Cunningham, C. (2022). Just Stop Oil: Research shows how activists and politicians talk differently about climate change. The Conversation UK. 16 November 2022, available at URL: theconversation.com/just-stop-oil-research-shows-how-activists-and-politicians-talk-differently-about-climate-change-193182

This area of work (led by Associate Professor Clare Cunningham) investigates teachers' attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge about multilingualism in mainstream classrooms, with a focus on understanding the challenges of teaching in linguistically diverse settings in the UK and beyond. Since 2009, Dr Cunningham has conducted extensive research on educators' perspectives toward languages other than English, contributing to numerous publications on this topic.

Since 2017, Dr Cunningham has also collaborated with an international team of researchers to examine teacher attitudes across eight countries, developing a unified interview protocol and assembling a robust dataset for cross-national analysis. Her work introduces the concept of 'inert benevolence,' a term describing a positive attitude towards multilingualism, translanguaging, and home language inclusion in classrooms that is often not put into practice due to systemic barriers. This finding resonates with data from other countries in the project, and ongoing research will further explore teacher perspectives on multilingualism and parental involvement in various educational contexts.

Selected works

Cunningham, C. (2019) 'When ‘home languages' become 'holiday languages': Teachers' discourses about maintenance and attrition of languages beyond English.' Language, Culture and Curriculum 33 (3): 213-227. DOI: 10.1080/07908318.2019.1619751.

Cunningham, C. (2019) 'The inappropriateness of language': Discourses of power and control over languages beyond English in primary schools. Language and Education 33 (4): 285-301. DOI: doi.org/10.1080/09500782.2018.1545787.

Cunningham, C. and Little, S. (2022) 'Inert benevolence' towards languages beyond English in the discourses of English primary school teachers. Linguistics and Education.

The Centre's research in this area (led by Dr Chisato Danjo) explores multilingualism, family language planning, and language maintenance, focusing on the dynamics of language policy and practice within families. The work examines how families navigate multilingual environments, the cultural and identity-related implications of their language choices, and the impact of linguistic ideologies in both learning and teaching contexts.
In collaboration with one of the students at York St John University, Dr Danjo has developed an online resource for parents and children interested in bilingualism and multilingualism. This website offers tools and guidance for families looking to foster multilingual practices: bilingualresources.wixsite.com/sources.

Ongoing research aims to broaden access to these findings, providing evidence-based support for parents making informed decisions about language use and maintenance within their families.

Selected works

Danjo, C. and Moreh, C. (2020) Complementary schools in the global age: A multi-level critical analysis of discourses and practices at Japanese Hoshuko in the UK. Linguistics and Education 60. doi.org/10.1016/j.linged.2020.100870

Danjo, C. (2018) Making sense of family language policy: Japanese-English bilingual children's creative and strategic translingual practices. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 24 (2): 292-304. doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1460302

Danjo, C. (2017) Reflecting on my positionality as a multilingual researcher. In J. Conteh (ed) Researching Education for Social Justice in Multilingual Settings. London: Bloomsbury. 105-120.

The Centre's work in this area (led by Dr Indu Vibha Meddegama) is dedicated to fostering home language maintenance and promoting multilingual education among migrant communities, in response to addressing both the linguistic and cultural challenges faced by first-generation migrants and their families. Dr Meddegama, together with Dr Maja Skender-Lizatovic, founded the Community Language School at York St John University, offering free language classes to children aged 6 to 13, delivered by multilingual volunteers. This initiative supports community language maintenance while contributing to ongoing research on language practices and attitudes within migrant communities.

Several key research projects at the Community Language School deepen our understanding of multilingual education and community-based language teaching. The Translanguaging in Practice project (co-conducted with Dr Mattia Zingaretti) explores translanguaging as a pedagogical approach, examining language volunteers' perceptions of translanguaging and how these perceptions inform classroom practices. By analysing observational field notes and recorded class interactions, this research investigates the impact of translanguaging on children's communicative behaviours, aiming to offer insights into the benefits of multilingual pedagogy in community settings.

Additionally, The Role of Professional Training in Scaffolding Community Language School Volunteers' Funds of Knowledge (co-conducted with Dr Maja Skender-Lizatovic) examines how volunteers draw on their life experiences, or "funds of knowledge," to support classroom instruction. This research employs pre- and post-training questionnaires to assess volunteers' reflections on a professional training day, identifying how training enhances their ability to utilize cultural knowledge in pedagogically meaningful ways. The findings highlight the importance of structured training in empowering volunteers to effectively identify and integrate personal and cultural knowledge into their teaching practices.

Collectively, these research initiatives underscore the Centre's commitment to advancing community language education, supporting multilingualism, and fostering inclusive language practices that benefit both language learners and their communities.

Community Language School

Selected works

Meddegama, I. V., Skender-Lizatovic, M., Zingaretti, M. and Sors, L. (2024) Advancing community language schools: Research-based insights on language volunteer training, teaching practices, and impact. [Poster presentation (PDF, 688 kB)]. Centre for Language and Social Justice Research Annual Showcase Event, York, England, May 2023. 

The Centre's work in this area (led by Dr Mattia Zingaretti) focuses on the multifaceted effects of bi-/multilingualism, exploring how speaking multiple languages impacts individuals linguistically, cognitively and emotionally.

In his doctoral research at the University of Edinburgh (2018–2022), Dr Zingaretti found that changes, or "attrition," can occur across lexical, syntactic and prosodic domains in the first language of adult bilinguals - not only long-term residents in a second-language country, but classroom-based learners of a second language in their home country, too. His findings suggest that altogether, attrition may be seen as a sign of successful second language acquisition - a perspective that his ongoing research aims to explore further.

Dr Zingaretti's interest in adult bilingualism has also led him to investigate the impact of intensive language learning on attentional skills alongside linguistic enhancements. Together with Professor Antonella Sorace (University of Edinburgh) and Roberta Spelorzi (University of Edinburgh), he examined cognitive and linguistic changes among students who completed an intensive online Italian course. The study revealed sustained improvements not only in Italian, but also in some attentional skills (for example, inhibitory control).

Additionally, Dr Zingaretti has been engaged in research on the emotional dimensions of bilingualism. Specifically, as part of the ALIHAS (A Linguistic Investigation of Hate Speech) project, he collaborated with Professor Antonella Sorace and Dr Maria Garraffa (University of East Anglia) to investigate how bilingualism influences perceptions of hate speech in one of the first studies of this kind. Their findings have shed light on the subtle changes that occur in the way bilingual speakers perceive some emotional aspects of hate words in their first language, guiding future explorations in this area.

Altogether, these research findings contribute to our understanding of the linguistic, cognitive and emotional effects of speaking more than one language, offering a multidimensional perspective on bi/multilingualism. They also help reframe our understanding of unrealistic native-speaker benchmarks in both language learning and teaching.

Selected works

Zingaretti, M., Chondrogianni, V., Ladd, D.R. and Sorace, A. (Forthcoming) L1 attrition vis-à-vis L2 acquisition: Lexicon, syntax-pragmatics interface and prosody in L1-English L2-Italian late bilinguals. Languages [Special issue].

Zingaretti, M. (2024) Reconceptualising the (near-)native speaker: The implications of first language attrition for applied linguistics and second language acquisition research [Paper presentation (PDF, 4 MB)]. 57th Annual Conference of the British Association for Applied Linguistics, Colchester, England, September 2024.

Zingaretti, M., Garraffa, M. and Sorace, A. (2024) The impact of bilingualism on hate speech perception and slur appropriation: An initial study of Italian UK residents. In S. Cruschina and C. Gianollo (eds) An Investigation of Hate Speech in Italian: Use, Identification, and Perception. Helsinki University Press. doi.org/10.33134/HUP-27-6

Zingaretti, M., Spelorzi, R. and Sorace, A. (2022) The effects of an intensive online language course: Linguistic and cognitive changes in English learners of Italian. [Poster presentation]. Bilingualism Matters Research Symposium 2022, Edinburgh, Scotland, October 2022. doi.org/10.17605/OSF.IO/AYUJE

The Centre's work in this area (led by Professor Chris Hall) challenges traditional views of English as a monolithic entity, presenting it instead as a "plurilithic" resource shaped by diverse linguistic influences and adaptive to various communicative contexts. Professor Hall's research began with a focus on vocabulary acquisition among Spanish-speaking learners of English in Mexico, leading to insights on the interconnected nature of multiple languages within an individual’s linguistic repertoire. This work raised fundamental questions about the perception of languages as separate, monolithic systems.

Professor Hall's current research addresses the broader cognitive and social implications of non-native Englishes, which are often marginalised due to pervasive racist and nationalist ideologies. Despite these biases, non-native English varieties frequently serve as more effective tools for global and local communication than standardised 'native' Englishes. His theoretical work advocates for 'ontological clarity' in English Language Teaching (ELT), promoting an understanding of English that acknowledges its diversity and practical utility.

This research has culminated in a series of empirical studies and the development of Changing Englishes, a free online course funded in part by the British Council. The course, now in its third edition, has engaged thousands of English teachers from over 100 countries, encouraging them to embrace a plurilithic perspective in their teaching.

Selected works

Hall, C. J. (2013) Cognitive contributions to plurilithic views of English and other languages. Applied Linguistics 34: 211-231.

Hall, C. J., Schmidtke, D. and Vickers, J. (2013) Countability in world Englishes. World Englishes 32 (1): 1-22.

Hall, C. J., Joyce, J. and Robson, C. (2017) Investigating the lexico-grammatical resources of a non-native user of English: the case of can and could in email requests. Applied Linguistics Review 8 (1): 35-59.

Hall, C. J., Wicaksono, R., Liu, S., Qian, Y. and Xu, X. (2017) Exploring teachers’ ontologies of English. Monolithic conceptions of grammar in a group of Chinese teachers. International Journal of Applied Linguistics 27 (1): 87-109.

Hall, C. J. and Cunningham, C. (2020) Educators’ beliefs about English and languages beyond English: from ideology to ontology and back again. Linguistics and Education 57: 1-14.

Hall, C. J., Gruber, A. and Qian, Y. (2022) Modelling plurilithic orientations to English with pre-service teachers: An exploratory international study. TESOL Quarterly 57 (4): 1167-1196.

The Centre's work in this area (led by Dr Nikki Swift) explores how children exposed to multiple phonological systems during early language acquisition develop their own accents or "phonological systems". The research focuses on how children resolve contradictory patterns in the accents they encounter, examining whether they adopt the local community's accent, their parents' accent, or a blend of both. Data from the language development of a single child between the ages of 2 and 7 years old forms the basis of this analysis.

Building on previous studies, this work investigates the factors influencing phonological acquisition. Research has shown that while peers play a significant role in shaping a child's accent, parental accents from outside the local community can inhibit the acquisition of more complex accent features. Influencing factors include local cultural values, the perceived prestige of the parental accent, the child's personality, and the complexity of the linguistic features being acquired. Dr Swift's research demonstrates that shifts from the home accent to the local accent occur first at the articulatory feature level - such as jaw openness, tongue position, or lip rounding - before changes at the level of individual speech sounds.

The findings further reveal that different aspects of a local accent are acquired at varying rates. Complex accent features may be adopted more rapidly than simpler ones, particularly if they are widely used within the local community. The acquisition process can span several years, and even when a child’s accent reflects features of the local community, the influence of the home environment may leave a lasting imprint.

This area of work significantly contributes to understanding how environmental and social factors interact in the development of phonological systems, offering valuable insights into the complex process of language acquisition in multi-dialectal environments.

Selected works

Swift, N. (2023) Vowel acquisition in a multidialectal environment: A five-year longitudinal case study. PhD thesis, University of York. etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/33556/

This line of research (led by Dr Yeji Han) explores how psychological and cultural factors shape the experiences of second language learners, focusing on motivation, emotions, and identity. It seeks to understand how personal goals, cultural influences, and learning environments affect the process and outcomes of language learning.

A key aspect of the research is the role of self-concept in motivation. Learners often picture their future selves - either as someone they aspire to become or as someone meeting external expectations - and these visions significantly influence their commitment and engagement in learning a language. Cultural attraction also plays an important role, particularly in the context of languages other than English. Research shows how interest in culture and supportive teachers contribute to making the learning process enjoyable.

Currently, two externally funded-projects are ongoing. Funded by The Academy of Korean Studies, the research examines how emotions such as boredom and enjoyment as well as cultural interests influence the use of emoticons and language play during mobile interaction. The other project funded by The Academy of Medical Sciences, UK explores the impact of English pressures and the mental health challenges faced by adolescents in South Korea. This project investigates the relationship between stress, sleep deprivation, and mental health, with a particular focus on the educational competitiveness surrounding English language learning.

Selected works

Han, Y. (2024) L2 selves as a source of emotional discomfort: A self-discrepancy perspective. In H. Anas and M. Syed Abdul (eds) Multilingual Selves and Motivations for Learning Languages other than English in Asian Contexts. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. 209-229.

Han, Y., Dewaele, J-M. and Kiaer, J. (2024) Does the attractiveness of K-culture shape the enjoyment of foreign language learners of Korean? International Journal of Applied Linguistics. doi.org/10.1111/ijal.12632

Han, Y. (2023) Motivations for learning Korean in Vietnam: L2 selves and regulatory focus perspectives. Journal of Language, Identity and Education 22 (6): 559-573. doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2021.1935961

Han, Y. and McDonough, K. (2021) Motivation as individual differences and as task conditions from a regulatory focus perspective: Their effects on L2 Korean speech performance. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching 15 (1): 1-12. doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2019.1652614

The Centre's work in this area (led by Dr Daniel Edmondson) focuses on understanding slurs - words and expressions used by more powerful social groups to demean and marginalise less powerful ones - and the reactions they evoke, both consciously and unconsciously. This interdisciplinary research, situated at the intersection of psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics, examines how linguistic reclamation impacts responses to such offensive language. Linguistic reclamation refers to the practice where members of marginalised groups use slurs targeting them for positive or non-derogatory purposes. Dr Edmondson’s research specifically addresses these dynamics within the LGBTQ+ community, which has a rich history of both being targeted by and reclaiming slurs.

A key output of this work is a novel, comprehensive, and open-access database documenting 41 frequently identified LGBTQ+ slurs in contemporary British English. The database includes ratings of both non-emotional properties (such as word familiarity and personal use) and emotional properties (such as perceived negativity and offensiveness). It also provides groundbreaking quantifiable ratings of the extent to which these slurs are being reclaimed in various contexts. The research further explores how these ratings vary across different demographic factors, including age, gender and sexual identity.

Designed primarily for use in experimental linguistic research, the database also offers valuable insights for anyone interested in understanding offensive language and its societal implications. Dr. Edmondson has shared these findings with a wide range of audiences, including national and international academic conferences, public and private-sector equalities networks, and through accessible public talks such as the Pint of Science Festival.

This work makes a significant contribution to understanding how slurs function linguistically and socially, offering new perspectives on the reclamation process and its impact on marginalised communities.

Selected works

Edmondson, D. (2021) Word norms and measures of linguistic reclamation for LGBTQ+ slurs. Pragmatics and Cognition 28 (1): 193-221. DOI: 10.1075/pc.00023.edm

The Centre's work in this area (led by Dr Leesa Clarke) explores very young children's understanding of what reading is and why they engage in it. This research focuses on early perceptions of reading, particularly among children aged 4-7 years old. In a preliminary study, 152 children were asked key questions about their views on the purpose of reading and participated in an activity where they taught a soft toy elephant how to read 'The Very Hungry Caterpillar'.

The findings revealed that a subset of the children did not fully grasp that the primary purpose of reading is to derive meaning from text. During the teaching activity, the children’s instructions to the "student" largely focused on the images in the storybook, with no references to extracting meaning from the text itself. These results suggest an early developmental gap in understanding the fundamental purpose of reading.

Building on these insights, Dr. Clarke plans to conduct a longitudinal study with a larger sample to investigate how children's understanding of reading evolves over time and how this understanding influences the development of reading and comprehension skills.

This research provides valuable insights into the early stages of literacy development, contributing to a deeper understanding of how young children conceptualise reading and its purpose. These findings have implications for educational practices aimed at fostering reading comprehension from an early age.

Selected works

Clarke, L. (2009) Inference Generation and Reading Disability. PhD thesis, University of York. Download thesis as PDF (PDF, 1.46 MB).